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Tips for Buying the Best Kitchen Plastic Products for your Home

Would you like to store your food in a reasonable manner? In the event that you do, you don’t have to stress over its capacity since you have kitchen plastic family things on your side.

While purchasing kitchen plastic storage boxes for your home, here are a few hints to consider to pick the best ones:

Quality and Security: Search for kitchen plastic storage boxes that are produced using top notch materials and fulfill wellbeing guidelines. Check for names demonstrating that the items are sans bpa and food-grade. This guarantees that they are alright for putting away and taking care of food.

Toughness: Decide on kitchen plastic items that are solid and dependable. Search for items produced using strong materials that can endure everyday use, dishwashing, and temperature varieties without breaking or distorting.

Usefulness: Think about the planned utilization of the plastic items and pick ones that satisfy your particular requirements. For instance, in the event that you really want food capacity compartments, search for ones with secure covers and impermeable seals. Assuming you really want utensils, consider ones that have ergonomic handles for agreeable use.

Simple Upkeep: Select kitchen plastic items that are not difficult to clean and keep up with. Search for items that are dishwasher-protected or simple to hand wash. Keep away from items that have convoluted or difficult to-arrive at regions that can trap food buildup or become hard to clean.

Heat Obstruction: Assuming you intend to involve plastic storage boxes  for microwave or broiler purposes, guarantee that they are microwave-safe and can endure high temperatures. Search for items with clear guidelines demonstrating their intensity obstruction abilities.

Size and Limit: Consider the size and limit of the plastic items in view of your stockpiling needs or how much food you normally handle. Pick food capacity compartments in various sizes to oblige different piece sizes or extras.

Right now where the costs of any things are contacting the sky; everyone is searching for a reasonable and effective answer for their consistently to day issue. The cash you make is certainly going to assist you with getting the food yet this cash will likewise assist you with putting away your food or increment their life expectancy and that is just conceivable assuming you contribute it on the right things.

Having plastic storage boxes in your kitchen would assist you with putting away your food. In any case, this is the one method for using plastic items in your family. In the event that you don’t have the foggiest idea how to get it and from where to get it, you don’t need to stressed over it since you have us on your side.

We supplies plastic storage boxes  that are tough, reasonable and are liberated from synthetics. In this blog, we will uncover numerous things in regards to family kitchen plastic things. So remain with us till the finish to be aware of it.

Kinds of kitchen plastic storage boxes

Prior to purchasing any item you should have a legitimate information about it. The plastic storage boxes utilized in our kitchens are not made of just a single sort of plastics. Every item has various plastics utilized in them. There are numerous items produced using various plastics that are being utilized in the kitchen so we should uncover the items made up from these plastics.

Cutting board: This plastic made item is a high priority thing in your kitchen. Prior to setting up any feast, we start with this item. This item is exceptionally reasonable and contains non-slip surfaces. This item is made up from polypropylene.

Garbage cans: This plastic garbage cans is made up from Polycarbonate (PC) and is additionally among one of the most amazing plastic item. It’s absolutely lightweight and sturdy.

Food Capacity Compartments: There are numerous plastic stockpiling boxes in Pakistan that is chiefly made to store the extra food; you can likewise name it food capacity holders. These are light in weight and Take less space.

Kitchen baskets: This item is additionally produced using different plastics like high-thickness polyethylene (HDPE) and polypropylene (PP).
Blending bowls: This plastic food compartment is produced using Polycarbonate (PC) and Melamine. This item is mostly used to blend any dry items in your kitchen.

What are Different Types of Liability Accounts

Basically every business manages liabilities, or things that it owes or has acquired. The comprehensive definition of liabilities states that liabilities are likely future sacrifices of economic benefits resulting from a company’s current obligations to transfer assets or provide services to other companies in the future as a result of previous transactions or events. However, referring to liabilities as debt is a much more intuitive description. In order to acquire resources and fund operations, businesses frequently seek funding from third parties. The lender might hold the option to either seize the acquiring business’ resources or make the borrower offer them to reimburse any remaining obligation.

To represent the creditor’s claim to the borrower’s capital in the event that debts are not paid, liability accounts are recorded on the right side of the borrower company’s balance sheet. Through the transfer of economic benefits in the form of money, goods, or services, these debts are paid off over time. The aat level 2 course accounting equation requires that the total amount of liabilities equal the total amount of assets and equity.

Resources = Liabilities + Value

Normal Sorts of Liabilities

There are two primary sorts of liabilities, current and non-current. A current liability is the first type, and it is expected to be paid off within one year or the operating cycle, whichever comes first. As a result, they are more commonly referred to as short-term liabilities. a non-current liability, on the other hand, has a longer duration. The borrower has over a year to pay off their debt. These debts are also referred to as long-term or fixed liabilities. The various kinds of liability accounts that fall under these two categories are outlined below.

Current Liabilities

Overdraft occurs when a company borrows money from a bank by overdrawing its account, taking out more money than the account is worth, and then paying back the difference to the bank. There is interest on the credit, and there is regularly a charge for each overdraft.
When a company purchases goods or inputs on an account and must repay them, this is called accounts payable.

Taxes Payable – for the purpose of collecting sales taxes and deductions for employees;
Any wages that the business owes to its employees but has not yet paid;

Gathered Costs – when a business or association represents costs that it will pay off at future dates;
Customer prepayments are money paid by customers in exchange for services or products from the company;
Current Portion of Long-Term Debt: a portion of debt with an overall maturity of more than a year; Interest Payable: any interest on loans that has been accrued but has not been paid as of the date on the balance sheet. portion is due within a year.

Deferred or unearned revenue is when a business sells goods or services to a customer who pays for them but never receives them. Those products and services are still owed to the customer.

A fixed-liability mortgage is a loan used to buy new property or expand an existing one;
Loans for automobiles and equipment typically involve significant upfront costs that must be paid back over time;
Notes Payable are the company’s equity or debt securities;

Deferred Tax Liabilities arise when an accounting period’s income differs from the taxable amount reported on the return;

Annuity Commitments – cash that must be represented to make future benefits installments;
Other Long-Term Debt: borrowings that have to be paid back in full in more than a year.

Contingent liability

A contingent liability is a third, less common type of liability in addition to the ones mentioned above. These debts are contingent on upcoming outcomes, or contingencies. If both of the following conditions are satisfied, a contingent liability can be established:

Although their name suggests something negative, liabilities are actually important aspects of enterprise management. The outcome is likely. The cost can be reasonably estimated. They are vital to arranging fruitful tasks and making esteem.

For instance, organizations regularly acquire cash to subsidize activities, pay for huge developments, and smooth out exchanges with different organizations. When these debts are not managed well, they become a problem, which can lead to financial decline, problems with solvency, and, in the worst cases, bankruptcy. To keep away from these issues, entrepreneurs ought to get comfortable with the sorts of liabilities and how they are assessed during the bookkeeping cycle.

Top benefits of a steel and glass Conservatory

The production of steel and glass has improved over time, laying the groundwork for the development of winter garden designs into increasingly fascinating and modern structures. The greenhouse architecture of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries was characterized from an aesthetic standpoint by a vast repertoire of shapes and decorations, influenced by the neoclassical, neo-gothic, and Moorish styles, thanks to new and increasingly particular metal bearing structures.

We quickly developed winter garden Timber windows birmingham conservatories as a result of the success of greenhouses, the desire to enjoy them throughout the year, and the pleasure of interacting with the lush green world. These structures consequently wound up turning into a fundamental part or an expansion of the house.

As a matter of fact, it was exactly the chance of having the option to partake in the outside space in spite of horrible weather patterns influencing the interest of the first class of the time.

These days, studios aren’t made exclusively in steel and glass yet additionally in different materials like wood and aluminum. However, the strengths of the metal winter gardens have already been highlighted: solidity, fire resistance, and the columns and structures’ overall lightness.

As a matter of fact, steel has numerous characteristics that meet the prerequisites of the development of a colder time of year garden. There is no question about the predominance of centers in steel and glass contrasted with different materials.

Why? Read on.

The advantages of steel conservatories

A winter garden’s metal structure provides stability and strength. Before receiving a specific powder-coating preparation treatment to prevent corrosion and for a long-lasting effect, each of the steel components goes through a complicated and elaborate cutting, welding, and assembly process.

However, what are the benefits of constructing conservatories out of steel?
Steel winter gardens are well-liked for their durability, as was mentioned at the beginning of the article. In point of fact, steel is a sturdy yet simple metal to work with, making it an excellent choice for the construction of conservatories, where strength and robustness are crucial.

For instance, a conservatory made of steel and glass would be ideal for housing a large living room with a dining room next to it because it would be able to provide the structural support that is required for spaces this size.

Conservatories made of steel are more durable and resistant

Metal is able to withstand the elements despite being exposed to weathering. Problems with maintenance and repair are few and far between with metal frame constructions because they are so strong and long-lasting.

Setting up a construction requires the readiness of the establishment and significantly longer establishments times than the get together of an iron and glass structure. It is sufficient to install metal plinths as a base for the construction of a steel conservatory without constructing a foundation, leaving the ground unaltered, if the dimensions permit it. Additionally, the bolt-fixed structure can be assembled and disassembled for repositioning elsewhere.

Because steel is a malleable material, winter gardens made of it can be folded and shaped in a variety of ways. Conservatories can be designed in any style and perfectly match any structure, regardless of its design or architecture, thanks to these features.

African polyvalent antivenom can maintain pharmacological stability and ability to neutralise murine venom lethality for decades post-expiry: evidence for increasing antivenom shelf life to aid in alleviating chronic shortages


Introduction

Snakebite envenoming, a WHO-recognised neglected tropical disease,1 is thought to cause approximately 81 000–138 000 deaths each year while permanently disabling a further 400 000 people.2 The victims of snakebite envenoming are overwhelmingly the poorest populations living in some of the most resource poor regions of the world.3 As it stands, the only established therapy for snakebite envenoming is antivenom, a polyclonal mixture of antitoxin antibodies refined from the sera of venom of hyperimmunised horses or sheep.

Antivenoms, like all therapeutics, have a defined shelf life. The WHO definition of shelf life is ‘the period of time, from the date of manufacture, that a product is expected to remain within its approved product specification while handled and stored under defined conditions’.4 For antivenoms, which are biologics, this period typically ranges from 2 to 5 years depending on the specific product, and is validated by testing the retention of key pharmacological, physicochemical, immunochemical and microbiological properties during the specified storage period. Once an antivenom has expired, it is outside the window of stability testing undertaken by the manufacturer, and thus the safety and effectiveness of the product become uncertain.

There have been critical shortages in antivenom supply for several decades.5–7 The shortages are a global phenomenon, but it is the regions in greatest need and most under-resourced that suffer the most acute shortages.6 8 Sub-Saharan Africa is the most notable example of this, with several antivenom market failures and frequent product stockouts, leading to extremely limited to no antivenom provision in large swathes of the continent.8–10 However, despite the shortfall in overall doses available, substantial quantities (up to 50% in one reported locale) of antivenom actually exceed their expiry dates and are subsequently discarded.11–13 The cause of this waste of critically precious antivenom is mainly due to difficulties in the national and regional antivenom inventory management, due to a lack of research and information around national requirements, weak infrastructure and financial inaccessibility, issues which are being actively addressed by various stakeholders.14–16

Considering the global crisis in antivenom supply, the loss of antivenom due to expiry has driven investigation into whether expired antivenoms retain clinical efficacy, with the rationale that they could be used in emergency situations when in-date antivenom is unavailable. It is widely recognised in academic settings that antivenoms can retain their efficacy for many years after their expiration, with several recent studies demonstrating retained antivenom preclinical efficacy, similar to that of non-expired antivenom, up to two decades post-expiry.17–20 Furthermore, there is clinical precedent for the use of expired antivenom in certain situations. For example, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of expired North American coral snake antivenom after it was discontinued by its manufacturer Wyeth in 2006.21 In emergency cases, the use of ‘recently’ expired antivenom is recommended by the WHO if no other option is available.22 This advice seems to be reflected in practice, with reported cases of expired antivenoms being used in several countries, perhaps routinely, when in-date antivenoms were not available, with reported positive outcomes.23 24 The most extensive report detailing the use of expired antivenom was a clinical study of 31 patients suffering from systemic effects of envenoming in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic.25 The patients in this study received antivenom which was beyond expiry by 1–6 years, as a result of the unavailability of in-date antivenom within the country at the time.25

In the studies to date, there has been limited evaluation of the neutralising capacity of expired antivenom products for sub-Saharan Africa, arguably the region with the greatest antivenom supply crisis, with just a single study identified.19 South African Institute for Medical Research (SAIMR) polyvalent, manufactured by South African Vaccine Producers (SAVP), is currently the only polyvalent antivenom produced within sub-Saharan Africa15 and throughout its 50-year history, it has enjoyed a good reputation of clinical efficacy, despite limited published evidence to support this.26 Here, we present a preclinical analysis of the venom neutralising characteristics of expired SAIMR polyvalent antivenom, using eight expired batches going back to 1991 and using several of the most medically important venoms from the region. We also report on immunochemical analyses of product stability of these batches, using industry standard quality control assessments. Our findings demonstrate that SAIMR polyvalent can retain preclinical efficacy and maintain acceptable product stability up to 25 years after its stated expiry date.

Methods

Additional detailed descriptions of all of the materials and methods used in this study are provided in the online supplemental methods.

Antivenoms

For this study, we used the SAVP equine F(ab’)2 polyvalent antivenom, ‘SAIMR polyvalent antivenom’. SAIMR polyvalent is manufactured from horses that have been hyperimmunised with the venoms of Bitis arietans, B. gabonica, Hemachatus haemachatus, Dendroaspis angusticeps, D. jamesoni, D. polylepis, Naja nivea, N. melanaluca and N. mossambica. According to the product insert, SAIMR polyvalent antivenom is indicated as ‘effective against the venoms of the rinkhals, mambas, and all the cobras and vipers likely to cause life-threatening envenoming in Africa’. All SAIMR polyvalent antivenom used in this study was donated by the UK Health Security Agency (or its predecessors) shortly after its expiry date. Antivenoms were stored long term, unopened in their original sealed glass ampules, at 4°C. Eight batches of antivenom were used with the following expiry dates (month/year) and lot numbers: 08/1991 (lot A706 S1), 08/1994 (lot D04446), 07/1997 (lot G03146), 11/2000 (lot J06646), 09/2001 (lot K04846), 09/2012 (lot X02646), 07/2015 (lot BB01446), 11/2017 (lot BF00546). Transport of two vials of each batch of antivenom from Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine (LSTM) to Instituto Clodomiro Picado (ICP) was through a specialist courier service (Biocair) with uninterrupted refrigerated conditions (2–8°C) throughout. All vials were used immediately after opening. Prior to being opened, each ampoule was inspected for visual differences in its content. This included noting the colour and if there were any visible particulates of precipitates in the liquid. Due to limited quantity of antivenom of each batch available for analysis, all results below are representative of technical replicates (from single vials) only.

Venoms

LSTM venoms: venoms used in ELISAs and in vitro snake venom metalloproteinase (SVMP) and phospholipase A2 (PLA2) assays were obtained from wild-caught specimens maintained in, or historical venom samples stored in, the Herpetarium of the LSTM. Following collection, venoms were immediately frozen and lyophilised to be stored as a powder at 4°C. Venoms were reconstituted in phosphate-buffered saline (25 mM sodium phosphate, 0.15 M sodium chloride (NaCl), pH 7.4) and stored at a concentration of 1 mg/mL at −20°C, unless stated otherwise. Venoms were only freeze-thawed once prior to use. Venoms used were pooled from multiple extractions of the following species: B. arietans (origin: Kenya), D. polylepis (Tanzania), N. haje (Uganda), N. nigricollis (Tanzania) and H. haemachatus (South Africa).

ICP venoms: venoms of adult specimens of B. arietans (unspecified origin, batch #322.061), D. polylepis (unspecified origin, batch #416.031) and N. nigricollis (unspecified origin, batch #616.031) were purchased from Latoxan (Portes-dès Valence, France). After collection, venoms were stabilised by lyophilisation and stored at −40°C. Solutions of venoms were prepared in 0.9% NaCl injection USP, immediately before use.

Nephelometric turbidity

Turbidity of antivenoms was measured at ICP in 2023. Nephelometric turbidity of antivenoms, expressed as nephelometric turbidity units (NTUs), was assessed as per US Pharmacopeia specifications.27 Briefly, samples of antivenoms were placed in reading cells and analysed in a LaMotte 2020 Turbidimeter (Chestertown, Maryland, USA) through comparing the intensity of light scattered by the sample with the intensity of the light scattered by a reference solution. Assays were performed in triplicate and results expressed as mean±SD.

SVMP assay

The SVMP assay was performed at LSTM in 2022 as previously described.28 29 Briefly, 1 µg of venom in a 1 µL volume was added to each well, followed by 10 µL of antivenom diluted in assay buffer (150 mM NaCl, 50 mM Tris pH 7.5). Antivenom dilutions of 1 in 4, 1 in 8 and 1 in 16 were used. The negative control was assay buffer alone. Each condition was performed in quadruplicate on a 384-well plate (Greiner Bio-One). The plates were briefly spun at 2500 rpm and then incubated for 25 min at 37°C, and for a further 5 min at room temperature. 90 μL of a quenched fluorogenic substrate (ES010, R&D Biosystems, supplied as a 6.2 mM stock) was then added to each well using a Multidrop Combi (Thermo-Scientific), and reactions monitored using a CLARIOstar Plus plate reader (BMG Labtech) at 420 nm for 75 min (10 flashes/well, 100 cycles) at an excitation wavelength of 320 nm and emission wavelength of 405 nm. The measurements at 52 min were chosen as the endpoint as all fluorescence curves had plateaued by this time point. Raw data were recorded in MARS data analysis software (BMG Labtech) prior to export and analysis in GraphPad Prism V.9. Results were then expressed as a percentage of the venom-only SVMP activity.

PLA2 assay

The PLA2 assay was performed at LSTM in 2022. The antivenoms were tested using the commercial Abcam sPLA2 assay (Abcam) optimised for high-throughput screening.30 The final reaction consisted of 9 µL each of the antivenoms (n=8) against 1 µL of each snake venom plated out into a 384-well plate (Grenier Bio). For H. haemachatus and N. nigricollis, stock solutions of 10 mg/mL were diluted 1 in 2000, resulting in 5 ng of venom per reaction. Following incubation of the venom and antivenoms for 30 min at 37°C protected from light, the plate was acclimatised for 5 min to room temperature. 5 µL of a stock of 4 mM 5,5′-Dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DNTB) in distilled water was added to each well of the venom+antivenom plate. The substrate 1 mM stock was prepared by resuspending in 1X assay buffer (diluted from the 10X stock in MilliQ water: 25 mM Tris-hydrogen chloride, pH 7.5, 10 mM calcium chloride, 100 mM potassium chloride, 0.3 mM Triton X-100). The addition of 30 µL of the substrate solution per well resulted in a final reaction concentration of 0.89 mM. The addition of venom, DTNB and substrate was done using a VIAFLO384 liquid handler (Integra). Following the addition of the substrate, the plates were immediately read kinetically on a CLARIOstar plate reader at 405 nm for 15 min (settings for a full 384-well plate were 11 flashes, 161 s cycle time). Raw data were recorded in MARS data analysis software prior to export and analysis in GraphPad Prism V.9. Results were then expressed as a percentage of the venom-only PLA2 activity.

In vivo neutralisation of venom-induced lethality

Sample size determination

We used the WHO-recommended essential in vivo preclinical assay to evaluate the ability of expired antivenoms to neutralise venom-induced lethality.31 This assay stipulates minimum numbers of animals required per assay to gain statistical significance and normal data distribution via Probit analysis of the median effective dose (ED50).32 This requires data from five experimental groups (consisting of five experimental units, that is, five mice), which receive a fixed dose of venom with a variable dose of antivenom. The groups are required to have one group with all survivors, one with all deaths and three groups with some survivors and some deaths. Therefore, five experimental groups are required for each ED50 assay. To determine the in vivo efficacy of each of the eight antivenoms versus three medically important venoms requires 24 assays (600 mice).

Animal maintenance

CD1 mice weighing 20–22 g, of both sexes, were obtained from the Bioterium of ICP. Mice were housed by sex in randomly allocated groups of five in Techniplast Eurostandard Type II 1264C cages (L25.0×W40.0×H14.0 cm) and maintained at 18–24°C, 60–65% relative humidity and 12:12 light-dark cycle, with food and water available ad libitum.

Neutralisation of lethality assessment

All experiments used mixed genders, and experimenters were unblinded to the test articles. Mice were pretreated with the analgesic tramadol, administered subcutaneously, at a dose of 50 mg/kg,33 15 min prior to administration of venom challenge. Mice were then injected intravenously with mixtures containing a challenge dose of venom dissolved in sterile 0.9% NaCl USP injection solution and variable dilutions of antivenom, which were premixed and incubated at 37°C for 30 min (volume of injection was 0.2 mL).34 Challenge doses were three times the previously determined median lethal dose (LD50) for the venoms of N. nigricollis (3× LD50=55.2 µg/mouse)35 and D. polylepis (3× LD50=1.14 µg/mouse)36 and five times for the venom of B. arietans (5× LD50=110 µg/mouse).37 The rationale for using 3× LD50 challenge doses for N. nigricollis and D. polylepis, rather than the conventional 5× LD50, was a refinement due to experience with these particular venoms demonstrating the use of 5× LD50 resulted in poor resolution of dose groups outcomes. The number of resulting deaths was recorded at 6 hours.38 The ED50 and the corresponding 95% CIs were calculated by Probit analysis.32 In line with recent WHO recommendations to report in vivo antivenom efficacy outcomes using the potency metric39 (the amount of venom completely neutralised per millilitre of antivenom (mg/mL), resulting in 100% survival of test animals40), calculated ED50 values were used to determine potency using the following equation: p=n–1 LD50/ED50, where n=the number of LD50 in the challenge dose.

Results

Total protein concentration

Total protein concentration of the eight antivenoms was determined by Biuret assay and ultraviolet/visible (UV/VIS) spectrometry. Concentrations measured by the two methods were consistent overall, although the OD280 nm measurements typically reported lower concentrations than Biuret, with no trend in protein concentration over time apparent (figure 1A). Total protein concentration ranged from a low of 121 mg/mL (1994) to 157 mg/mL (2000) by Biuret (mean=142 mg/mL, SD=11 mg/mL) or 121 mg/mL (1994) to 146 mg/mL (2000) by UV/VIS spectrometry (mean=129 mg/mL, SD=9 mg/mL).

Figure 1

Physiochemical analysis of expired SAIMR polyvalent antivenoms. Antivenom expiry year is represented on each x axis. (A) Mean (n=3 technical replicates) total protein concentration (mg/mL) of each batch determined by Biuret (black points) or Nanodrop (red points). Error bars represent the ±SD. (B) Nephelometric turbidity assessment of each batch of antivenom expressed as mean (n=3) nephelometric turbidity units (NTUs). Error bars represent the ±SD. The dotted line represents 50 NTUs, the maximum permitted NTU for antivenom manufactured at Instituto Clodomiro Picado. (C) Reducing SDS-PAGE profiles of expired SAIMR polyvalent antivenom batches (denoted by year of expiry along top) centrifuged and the resulting supernatants diluted 1/75 prior to loading. Arrows represent bands analysed by mass spectrometry. 1=alpha-1-antitrypsin, 2=alpha-2-macroglobulin, 3 and 4=immunoglobulin fragments representative of antibody heavy and light chains, respectively. SAIMR, South African Institute for Medical Research.

Turbidity

Visual inspection of the eight unopened antivenom vials revealed the oldest vial (1991) appeared cloudy with fine particulate matter, while the 1994 expiry antivenom appeared to have larger particulate matter but were transparent and pale yellow in colour. The remaining six antivenoms were transparent and pale yellow in colour. Nephelometric turbidity analysis reflected this, with elevated values for the oldest vials from 1991 and 1994, but acceptable levels of turbidity (<50 NTUs) for the remaining eight vials despite the time lapsed after their expiry (figure 1B).

Protein profiles

SDS-PAGE profiles of all antivenoms and GFC of four antivenoms demonstrated that >90% of the antivenom protein content corresponds to F(ab’)2 immunoglobulin fragments (ie, the active ingredients) (figure 1C). Overall, results did not demonstrate any substantive evidence of immunochemical degradation over time. Additional bands and peaks not corresponding to F(ab’)2 fragments were visible in both SDS-PAGE and GFC. Mass spectrometry identification of these additional bands reveals they are the common serum proteins alpha-1-antitrypsin and albumin. GFC also revealed an additional peak at 214 nm but not at 280 nm, indicating that it is not proteinaceous in nature (online supplemental figure 1).

ELISA and immunoblotting

Next, we examined the ability of antivenoms to recognise, via ELISA, five key African venoms; B. arietans, H. haemachatus, D. polylepis, N. haje and N. nigricollis. All expired antivenoms were able to recognise the five venoms (figure 2 and online supplemental figure 2), with examination of the absorbance at OD405 nm at a dilution of 1 in 1250, representing a dilution mid-titration curve, proving to be consistent over time (figure 2A). Immunoblotting against the same venoms suggested that there was an overall decrease in recognition of venoms by all antivenoms which expired from 1991 to 2001, as compared with antivenoms which expired in 2012, 2015 and 2017 (online supplemental figure 3).

Figure 2
Figure 2

In vitro preclinical analysis of expired SAIMR polyvalent batches. Antivenom expiry year is represented on each x axis. (A) Mean (n=3 technical replicates) antibody titre at a neat antivenom dilution of 1:1250, expressed as absorbance at 405 nm. Error bars=±SD. Light purple =Bitis arietans venom, dark purple =Dendroaspis polylepis, red =Hemachatus haemachatus, green =Naja haje, black =N. nigricollis, dashed line=blank (PBS). (B) Ability of each antivenom to inhibit in vitro SVMP activity of B. arietans venom. Results represent mean (n=3 technical replicates) % inhibition compared with activity of venom-only controls. Error bars=±SD. (C,D) Ability of each antivenom to inhibit in vitro PLA2 activity of H. haemachatus (C) and N. nigricollis (D). Points represent mean (n=8 technical replicates) % inhibition compared with the activity of venom-only controls. Error bars=±SD. PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; PLA2, phospholipase A2; SAIMR, South African Institute for Medical Research; SVMP, snake venom metalloproteinase.

Antivenom in vitro neutralising capacity

We subsequently investigated the ability of the expired antivenoms to neutralise toxin-specific activity in biochemical functional assays, specifically PLA2 activity (in H. haemachatus and N. nigricollis venoms) and SVMP activity (in B. arietans venom).

The SVMP activity of B. arietans venom was inhibited by all antivenoms to varying extent, with the 2012 expiry antivenom having the most potent SVMP-inhibiting activity (77.8%), while the 1994 batch possessed the lowest level of SVMP inhibition (38.0%) (figure 2B). There is a gradual reduction in B. arietans SVMP-inhibiting capability in ageing antivenoms from 2017 to 1994. However, the oldest antivenom (1991 expiry) has a greater inhibiting capability than the majority of antivenoms, with the exception of the 2012 and 2015 expiry.

The functional PLA2 activity of both H. haemachatus and N. nigricollis was inhibited by all antivenoms to varying extent (55.8–73.7% for H. haemachatus and 49.7–86.2% for N. nigricollis) (figure 2C,D). However, the capability of individual expired antivenoms in inhibiting either H. haemachatus or N. nigricollis PLA2 activity was not consistent across the two venoms. The PLA2-inhibiting capacity of the antivenoms versus H. haemachatus venom steadily reduced as the antivenoms aged (figure 2C), while antivenoms which expired in or before 2000 appeared substantially more capable of inhibiting N. nigricollis PLA2 activity than the more recently expired antivenoms (figure 2D).

Antivenom in vivo neutralising capacity

With the demonstration that expired antivenoms retained in vitro venom toxin neutralising capability, despite substantial time passing since expiry, we proceeded to determine the murine in vivo ED50 and subsequently the potency, of each expired antivenom. Using the WHO-recommended essential in vivo preclinical assay to measure antivenom neutralisation of venom-induced lethality,31 we assayed three medically important venoms (B. arietans, D. polylepis and N. nigricollis) whose envenoming is indicated for treatment by SAIMR polyvalent. Results demonstrate all antivenoms retained their ability to neutralise the systemic lethal effects of each venom (figure 3 and online supplemental table 1). The mean potency values for B. arietans were variable, with some batches having distinct lower (1991 and 1997) or higher (2012 and 2015) potency, with the remainder having potency broadly spread in between (figure 3A). Overall, while significant differences in potency were notable between some batches, there was no correlation with the B. arietans venom neutralising ability with age or protein content. The majority of mean potency values of the expired antivenoms versus N. nigricollis and D. polylepis venoms were substantially lower than those versus B. arietans venom, in line with the well-described weaker capability of antivenoms in neutralising elapid venoms versus that of viper venoms (figure 3).41 The majority of expired antivenoms had potency values in the range of 0.6–1 mg/mL with substantially overlapping CIs against D. polylepis venom, while 2012 and 2017 expiry had notably greater potency (1.6 mg/mL) (figure 3B). As with the expired antivenom potency versus B. arietans venom, while significant differences in potency were notable between individual batches, overall, there was no correlation with D. polylepis venom neutralising ability with either age of the expired antivenom or its protein content. Expired antivenom potency versus N. nigricollis venom demonstrated remarkable consistency over time, with mean potency in the range of 0.6–1.1 mg/mL with broadly overlapping CIs, with no correlation with time of antivenom expiry or protein content (figure 3C).

Figure 3
Figure 3

The ability of expired SAIMR polyvalent antivenoms to neutralise murine in vivo lethality. Antivenom expiry year is represented on each x axis. The ability to neutralise murine lethality is expressed as the median neutralising dose (ED50), presented as mg of venom neutralised per mL of antivenom (mg/mL) calculated by Probit analysis. Venoms tested were (A) Bitis arietans (vs 5× LD50), (B) Dendroaspis polylepis (vs 3× LD50) and (C) Naja nigricollis (vs 3× LD50). Error bars represent 95% Cls. For all experiments, each venom and antivenom dose were premixed, incubated at 37°C for 30 min before intravenous administration (n=5 mice/group). Results are representative of 6 hours post-venom injection. ED50, median effective dose; LD50, median lethal dose; SAIMR, South African Institute for Medical Research.

Discussion

In this study, we examined the immunochemical and preclinical neutralising efficacy of eight batches of expired SAIMR polyvalent antivenom, ranging from 6 to 32 years post-expiry, which had been kept in long-term refrigerated conditions, with the objective of inferring their potential suitability for use when alternatives are unavailable and to explore if existing expiry dates could be extended. The key finding of this study is that SAIMR polyvalent can retain the in vivo ability to neutralise murine venom-induced lethality for over 30 years; however, physical stability is limited to a shorter period of up to 25 years.

A major consideration for clinicians using antivenom is its visual appearance, with most clinicians unlikely to administer cloudy antivenoms for fear of loss of activity or increased likelihood of adverse reaction.42 In terms of physical stability, only the oldest antivenoms, which expired in 1991 and 1994, were visibly cloudy, with levels of turbidity in excess of permissible quality control levels. The turbidity is assumed to be aggregation of F(ab’)2, which does not represent a loss in neutralising capacity in some of the tests presented here, likely due to the majority of F(ab’)2 present in antivenom not being clinically relevant for envenoming,43 but is enough to increase turbidity substantially. Antivenom total protein concentration broadly remained stable over time, and SDS-PAGE analysis demonstrated comparable levels of F(ab’)2 fragments (figure 1C). However, minor differences in protein profiles were notable, indicating various levels of impurities, which we consider to be a result of normal manufacturing variability as opposed to deterioration in product.

Prior to in vivo assays, all antivenom batches were examined using in vitro immunological and biochemical assays to assess their ability to recognise and neutralise venom toxins. ELISA and immunoblots demonstrated all expired batches were able to recognise venoms, with no substantial differences in recognition based on antivenom expiry. Biochemical in vitro assays demonstrated that all antivenoms retained the ability to partially neutralise SVMP and PLA2-specific activity. Apparent decreases in SVMP and PLA2 neutralising activity for B. arietans and H. haemachatus were noted, with older expiring antivenoms inhibiting less toxin activity compared with antivenoms expiring more recently, although this trend was not apparent for N. nigricollis PLA2 activity. It is important to note that while these assays are a valuable indicator of whether an antivenom may or may not be suitable for use in vivo, thus preventing the use of mice in experiments likely to fail, they are not capable of predicting actual performance in vivo.

The results of the ED50 assay for determining the potency of each antivenom’s ability to neutralise the lethal effects of D. polylepis, N. nigricollis and B. arietans venom demonstrated all expired antivenoms retained preclinical efficacy, with no evidence of degradation of capability over time since expiry. The ED50 and potency values of the antivenoms versus D. polylepis and N. nigricollis are highly similar to that of previously reported values for these venoms,44–47 whereas the values for B. arietans are all within the range (higher end) of values previously reported.44 46–48 Importantly, the potency values for B. arietans and D. polylepis are highly similar to that established for a non-expired batch of SAIMR polyvalent (Batch BL01646, expiry May 2023) tested in 2021 versus B. arietans and D. polylepis venom from eSwatini (p=20.3 mg/mL and 1.8 mg/mL, respectively),44 suggesting that the in vivo potency of the expired antivenom batches is comparable with that of non-expired batches.

As described, many studies have demonstrated retained efficacy of expired antivenoms,17–19 and it is important to consider whether existing antivenom stocks could be used more efficiently,16 particularly given the lack of access to these products in low and middle-income settings.49–51 Reports suggest that clinicians are already using expired antivenom products due to lack of availability of in-date products,25 and the South-East Asia regional office WHO guidelines for managing snakebite endorse this in certain circumstances: ‘in patients with severe envenoming, recently expired antivenoms may be used if there is no alternative’.22 However, we must emphasise that while we and others have demonstrated retained preclinical efficacy of expired antivenoms in mouse models, the clinical efficacy and safety of these antivenoms cannot be confirmed from these assays. Expired antivenoms which are cloudy or have precipitates must not be administered due to the likely high risk of adverse reactions resulting from aggregates.52 The legal implications of prescribing expired antivenom must be emphasised, as the prescribing clinician may subsequently become liable for any adverse events suffered by the patient following administration of an expired antivenom and would need to counsel the patient on the potential risks.

Currently available antivenoms, particularly those marketed in Asia and Africa, are of varying quality and have often been approved by regulators and provisioned by health services, despite a lack of preclinical or clinical efficacy data.26 41 46 50 This lack of regulation has been disastrous, with evidence suggesting that poor-quality products have caused harm to patients.53 54 Some of the methods used in the present study are similar to those applied by the WHO antivenom risk–benefit assessment, which endeavours to exclude poor-quality products from the market. This programme includes a review of the product dossier, laboratory analysis (according to WHO standards for biological products)31 and manufacturing site inspection (to ensure adherence to Good Manufacturing Practices). Thus, it may be feasible for the WHO antivenom risk–benefit assessment to be extended to evaluate the quality and preclinical efficacy of expired products, which could enable manufacturers of good-quality antivenoms to extend the expiry date, or could provide regulators and clinicians with assurance that certain products can be administered for a defined period after their expiry date has passed. Preferentially, and following strengthening of regulatory systems in low/middle-income country settings, organisations such as the proposed African Medicines Agency55 could lead on ensuring the quality of antivenom products is acceptable, and on defining appropriate expiry dates.

There would be particular value in extending antivenom expiry dates if the proposed WHO antivenom stockpile for Africa were to become established.56 Efforts in the USA to stockpile medications that protect against certain public health emergencies,57 namely pandemics, have been hindered by the high costs of regularly replacing expired stockpiled products, which are carefully stored, but not used, for long periods of time. In response to this challenge, the FDA has provided various routes for products to be approved for use beyond their initial expiry date.58 Given that a regional stockpile of antivenom would entail storage of a large volume of product in a controlled environment, with appropriate temperature regulation, it is feasible that products could remain safe and effective beyond their expiration date, which could improve the financial viability of this important project. Additional in vivo preclinical evaluation of antivenom products would incur a substantial financial cost but given that antivenom products are expensive to produce,9 this may be cost-effective. The ethical cost of increasing what is already substantial and severe, in vivo preclinical testing would also have to be carefully considered. Many manufacturers will have run real time and accelerated stability studies on their antivenom products to explore what duration of time is acceptable for expiry (ie, beyond the listed expiry). Going forward, manufacturers could consider making these data available, such as described by Morokuma et al,20 to provide additional confidence in extended expiration.

Potential wider disincentives for manufacturers to pursue extension of antivenom expiry dates must be considered. The antivenom market has been fragile and manufacturers of higher-quality products have previously ceased production due to unsustainable economics,54 and there is a theoretical risk that extension of expiry dates could reduce product turnover and further impair financial sustainability. Nevertheless, by reducing waste of antivenom products, it is likely that manufacturers could adjust prices to offset losses while ultimately reducing the cost to health services and the public. The benefit of evaluating products based on quality, which has been pioneered by the WHO antivenom risk–benefit assessment, and removing poor products from the market, is a major step forward and should be further expanded to define evidence-based expiry dates.

A major limitation in this study is the absence of any non-expired SAIMR polyvalent for direct comparison. The reasoning behind this is twofold. First, SAIMR polyvalent is extremely expensive and notably extremely difficult to procure outside of South Africa, with anecdotal evidence of worsening supply issues recently. Second, due to these supply issues, we considered it unethical to use the highly limited quantity of SAIMR polyvalent available to us for research purposes, when they may be required in the event of an envenoming. Despite this, comparison with recent in vivo preclinical data available examining the efficacy of non-expired SAIMR polyvalent versus two similar venoms used in this study, demonstrating highly similar results,44 provides confidence in our conclusion that the expired antivenoms in this study have no demonstrable reduction in preclinical efficacy due to age.

Clearly, the older antivenoms used in this study (1991 and 1994 expiry) would not be considered for clinical use based on their appearance alone. Our results clearly suggest that the apparent instability associated with storage time is not reflected as a change in immunochemical properties or the neutralising potency, but as an increment of the turbidity. Reflecting this, antivenoms from 1997 onwards have favourable quality control profiles largely indistinguishable from what would be expected for in-date products. Therefore, we believe this study provides strong rationale for stakeholders (manufacturers, regulators and health authorities) to explore the use of expired antivenom and the extension of antivenom shelf life. The use of expired antivenom needs to be carefully assessed on a product-by-product and venom-by-venom basis, and confirmation of safety of such products is necessary. However, the evidence, both preclinical17–19 and clinical,21 23 25 demonstrating the long-term retained efficacy of antivenoms should lead to initiatives regarding changing expiry dates that could assist in alleviating chronic antivenom availability shortages globally.



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Turks up in arms over killing of stray cat



ISTANBUL:

The killing of a stray cat in Istanbul has triggered petitions, protests and death threats, pushing the president to intervene and the courts to retry the culprit.

On January 1, Ibrahim K. was caught on a security camera in the lobby of the building where he lived kicking to death a stray cat named Eros that his neighbours regularly fed.

He was sentenced in early February to 18 months in jail but was then released for good behaviour, sparking indignation among animal welfare groups and a section of the public in Turkiye, whose large stray cat population is often fed and sheltered.

Some 320,000 people signed an online petition demanding a stiffer sentence and in late February the justice ministry said Ibrahim K. would be retried after it received a night-time call from President Recep Tayyip Erdogan saying he was taking a “personal” interest in the case.

Ibrahim K. was retried on Wednesday in a court building where hundreds of people thronged the corridors and the atmosphere was tense.

Read also: Stray deer rescued

The judges increased his sentence by one year but did not order him to be detained, ignoring the demands of animal welfare groups and internet trolls who have sent him death threats.

One animal rights group is to appeal, saying Ibrahim K. should be jailed for the maximum four years allowed by law.

On Thursday, the hashtag #JusticeforEros (#ErosicinAdalet) was trending on X, formerly Twitter, in Turkiye and several major newspapers, including Hurriyet, splashed pictures of the dead cat on their front pages.

Hurriyet carried several articles about Eros and “Ibrahim the killer”.

Several celebrities have joined the Justice for Eros appeal, including Argentinian footballer Mauro Icardi, the star striker at Istanbul giants and reigning Turkish champions Galatasaray.



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T-90S Is More and More Common in Ukraine – Why Is That Weird?


The Russian Ministry of Defense has published a new propaganda video that shows some of its tanks meant for the war in Ukraine. It turns out that the T-90S, a main battle tank that was originally designed for export, is also serving in Ukraine.

The T-90S was developed as an export version of the tank.

The T-90S was developed as an export version of the tank. Image credit: Vitaly V. Kuzmin via Wikimedia (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The T-90 is a family of modern main battle tanks produced in Russia since 1992. The T-90 was designed to replace the T-72, but of course, it didn’t replace anything and the T-72 is still the spine of the Russian armoured forces. The T-90M Proryv, sometimes derisively referred to as Putin’s pride, is technically the most advanced tank in the Russian forces, since the T-14 Armata simply does not exist.

There are several versions of the T-90. The T-90S was developed specifically for export to India, Turkmenistan and Algeria, among other countries interested in the T-90 platform. However, in 2023, these export tanks appeared in Ukraine instead. And now the number of T-90S tanks in Ukraine is increasing. One has to wonder if this means that the Russian forces are lacking tanks.

According to the UK Ministry of Defence, Russia has lost at least 2,600 main battle tanks in Ukraine. Other sources indicate that Russia actually lost more than 3,000 main battle tanks since the beginning of the invasion in February 2022. Russia boasts that it produces tanks in large quantities and quickly, but the truth is that many tanks are now being pulled from long-term storage.

The T-90S tanks that Russia is throwing at Ukraine were most likely produced for other countries, but Russia has no other choice and uses them itself. Maybe the orders are going to be late? There is another explanation – some analysts claim that the buyers could have rejected those tanks due to manufacturing defects.

T-90 tanks are supposed to be modern, with active armour protection, electronic warfare systems and everything that the Russian military industry can offer. But even these tanks are shielding themselves against kamikaze drones with cope cages. They don’t work, because the FPV drones are very maneuverable and can dive under those grilles quite easily.

At least two T-90S tanks were already destroyed in Ukraine. But the T-90S should not be underestimated. The T-90S has a powerful 125 mm gun and a powerful 750 kW engine. It may also have the Tshu-1 self-defence system, which is an IR device that blinds some anti-tank missiles (not all T-90S have it). The Kontakt-5 dynamic armour protection is also supposed to protect the T-90S from total destruction. In addition, T-90 tanks in Ukraine are increasingly seen with jammers, which are supposed to disrupt drones.

Written by Povilas M.

Sources: Tech.wp.pl, Wikipedia





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Towards a multi-lateral framework for cross-border surveillance and information sharing between Nigeria and neighbouring countries


Summary box

  • Nigeria sits in a geopolitically pivotal health security space in Africa sharing contiguous borders with West and Central African countries – Republic of Benin and the Republic of Niger, Republic of Cameroon, and the Republic of Chad.

  • To strengthen infectious disease cross-border surveillance and response, Nigeria set out to effort to build 5-country multi-lateral consensus, sign bilateral instruments, define a road map, and build capacity for preparedness and response with its neighbors, using a multi-lateral.

  • Sustaining such cross-border collaboration for preparedness and response requires local agency, ownership, and funding.

  • This multi-lateral framework can be leveraged to mitigate other health security risks in the region.

Introduction

West and Central Africa has increasingly become a focal point for Global Health Security in recent times. In the last decade, there has been an increase in the number of infectious disease outbreaks of international concern, a not insignificant amount of them originating in West and Central Africa. Starting with the West African Ebola virus disease outbreak of 2014, countries in this region are responding to an increasing incidence of infectious disease outbreaks with the potential to spill across borders. This trend is against the backdrop of the increasing interaction between man and wildlife as deforestation brings disease reservoirs closer to the living space,1 increasing insecurity due to armed conflict resulting in forced migration across state borders and the resultant wide-ranging displacement of persons.2

Nigeria sits at the intersection of West and Central Africa sharing borders to the east with the Republic of Cameroon and the Chad Republic (both Central African Countries) and to the north and west with the Republic of Niger and the Republic of Benin (both West African), as shown in figure 1.1 Nigeria also sits at the ends of two significant trade and traffic routes. The Trans-Saharan route, a route now important for the historically problematic migration surge to Europe and the catastrophic displacement of persons from the deteriorating security situation in the Sahel. The second key route is the Abidjan-Lagos Corridor Organisation (ALCO), the major regional artery for the movement of goods and people across West Africa. Spanning multiple countries, this route bears the potential to foster the largest contiguous multi-state collaboration in Africa.3 The ALCO processes one of the largest informal movements of persons and goods in Africa. It also feeds into the Mano-River countries—a region at the epicentre of the 2014 Ebola virus disease outbreak. These risk dynamics underscore the crucial need for countries in both regions to have a structured way of sharing surveillance information at the national and subnational levels to strengthen preparedness for future outbreaks.

Figure 1

Map of Nigeria showing the border with Benin, Chad, Niger and Cameroon.1

Following the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020, countries across West and Central Africa responded to the pandemic with measures beginning, as is often the case with countries in the Global South, at Points of Entry. Measures deployed at airports, seaports and ground crossings differed significantly but can be argued to have had a significant impact on the eventual outcome of the response. It is against this backdrop that key stakeholders in the health security ecosystem in Nigeria set out to build a framework for surveillance and information sharing with its neighbours across West and Central Africa. The scope of this collaboration for the short-term was identified as ‘surveillance and infectious disease information sharing at national and subnational levels across borders’.

From Abidjan-Lagos Corridor Organisation to West African Health Organisation

Previous documented attempts at setting up bilateral and multilateral health security frameworks have noted the difficulty of convincing increasingly sceptical governments of the effectiveness of such initiatives.4 Governments rarely share the same health security priorities, however broadly these frameworks define them; governments hesitate to share data that may inform adverse trade and travel policies; and supranational systems rarely balance language broad or precise enough to incorporate the different legal systems and biases in participating countries.5 These challenges constrained previous attempts to set up a multi-lateral information sharing framework in West Africa—like the attempts to set up a multi-country framework for the sharing of infectious disease outbreak information following the Ebola outbreak of 2018.6 Specifically, the ALCO set out to design and deploy a framework for cross-border surveillance information sharing. The framework sought to cover five countries (Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire), highlighting their importance in the region, and the volume of travelers shared through the corridor. After several multi-country workshops, the draft memoranda of understanding and protocols for information sharing at the national and district level was agreed in principle by the technical officers (epidemiologists, IHR focal persons) of the five countries. However, a few countries withheld ministerial approvals. In 2019, the West African Health Organisation (WAHO) adopted the instrument and its ancillary protocols. The information-sharing protocol was adapted to include all 14 member countries of the Economic Community West African States (ECOWAS) and presented at a Ministerial Meeting of the West African Health Assembly. This instrument was important in fulfilling some of the regional health security push for the West African bloc of Nations. In furtherance of this, in 2021, the WAHO and the ECOWAS Regional Centre for Disease Control drafted, reviewed and tested a set of standard operation protocols for information sharing between member states.2 7

However, to achieve full inclusion and satisfy key legal and foreign policy positions, the West African regional solution, although well thought-out, seemed suboptimal for Nigeria. Nigeria sought a framework that also includes its neighbours from Central Africa: Chad and Cameroon who are not party to ECOWAS. Both countries will not be a party to any framework instituted through the ECOWAS platform.

A bespoke instrument that establishes a common epidemiological approach to surveillance information sharing for all of Nigeria’s borders and effectively addresses both the geopolitical and epidemiological peculiarity of Nigeria was needed. The solution currently being explored at the WAHO through the ECOWAS Regional Centre for Surveillance and Disease Control (RCSDC) provided the foundation, in principle, for the instrument that was eventually collaboratively designed.

The Nigerian-anchored multi-lateral, multi-regional solution

Inception: in the shadow of a pandemic

In February 2020, while the world was stirred by the news of an outbreak in China, Port Health Services Nigeria held an inception meeting to discuss cross-border surveillance with stakeholders. This was conceptualised as a first step towards crafting a coherent strategy for cross-border engagement with Nigeria’s neighbors. The objectives of this first engagement included outlining key responsibilities and responsibility-holders within the cross-border surveillance and information-sharing task system and agreeing on a short to medium-term plan for systematically strengthening cross-border surveillance information sharing at the national and district levels.

A key decision from the meeting was the need to set up a National Cross-Border Surveillance Committee (as shown in figure 2).3 The following principles guided the set-up and function of this committee:

Figure 2
Figure 2

Non-functional, non-hierarchical overview of the multilateral coordination mechanism.3 IHR-NFP, International Health Regulations National Focal Point; PHS, Port Health Services; LGA, Local Government Area.

A three-tiered management and implementation approach was taken, with;

  • A Steering Committee that handles bilateral agreements and consists of Ministers, the Director of Public Health, the Director of Port Health Services and IHR-NFPs—Nigeria, and equivalent counterpart stakeholders from Nigeria’s four proximal neighbours.

  • A National Technical Committee that is designed to oversee strategies, and activities as well as provide support on implementation.

  • And a coordinating unit that functions as a secretariat which is domiciled at Port Health Services headquarters and is responsible for the planning and facilitation of meetings, and other administrative functions to ensure the hitch-free running of the committee. (A diagram showing the structure and inter-relation of the key coordination mechanisms is shown in figure 2.)

At the land borders, a core committee that comprises key agencies across the national lines are responsible for conducting cross-border meetings and operating a ‘Cross Border Forum’. This group helps translate strategy to implementation supported by implementing partners such as Pro-Health International.

Designing a multi-lateral framework for surveillance and information sharing

The central concept for the framework was simple—a broad multi-lateral platform that provides actionable national and subnational approaches to surveillance information sharing and response. The framework provides broad supra-national guidance for collaboration but allows for specific bilateral agreements that define specific terms of collaboration. A great example of this type of supra-national guidance is the International Civil Aviation Organisation’s Public Health Corridor concept.6 A product of the Take-off Guidance Document, a push to re-start aviation safety in the wake of the early global lockdowns due to COVID-19, the Public Health Corridor concept is a framework that allows ‘two or more States to agree to mutually recognise the implemented public health mitigation measures on one or more [flight] routes between their States’. This means countries with a ‘Corridor’ between them can get ahead of outbreaks and maintain flight arrangements knowing they share proximate risk assessment of the situation and mitigation measures.8

Working through a coordinating unit within the National Technical Committee, key officers from Port Health Services began stakeholder engagements with key national stakeholders in the Point of Entry sector—prioritising stakeholders that operate at ground crossings/land borders (such as the Nigerian Immigration Service, the Nigerian Customs Service, the Nigerian Agricultural Quarantine Service and the Nigeria Border Communities Development Agency). These consultations allowed for an understanding of what these stakeholders consider their roles and the constraints to the execution of their mandates in response to infectious disease outbreaks. A key output of these consultations was the terms of reference (TOR) for the members of the National Cross-Border Technical Committee. The TOR, as well as articles of a multilateral/bilateral memorandum of understanding between countries, was designed through an iterative co-creation process requiring regular consultation sessions.

The key goal in the short term was to hold a meeting of the National Cross-Border (Technical) Committee with key national public health officers from Nigeria’s contiguous neighbours in attendance for further review. The officers invited from the neighbouring countries were the International Health Regulations National Focal Point (IHR-NFP) responsible person and the head of the Port Health Authority (where such exists). At this meeting, there was a facilitated multi-sectoral, multi-lateral review of the draft instruments of collaboration as well as ancillary protocols for information sharing and response. A key outcome was a five-country consensus on the necessity and broad outline of a framework for multi-lateral collaboration on infectious disease surveillance and response.

A vision for regional health security collaboration

A road map for the immediate term

At the national level, this mechanism will continue to be used to drive outbreak information sharing and maintain broad memoranda of collaboration on information sharing and other ancillary activities between the four other countries. These will include holding regular multi-lateral engagements, establishing a bilateral agreement on information sharing and response, developing a mid-term (2–5 years) strategic work plan for Nigeria and the ‘Plus4’ group of countries, and conducting targeted advocacy for funding to commence bilateral meetings between Nigeria and the four neighbouring countries monitoring progress and responding to district-level events. At the subnational level, the approach is to expand the number of ground crossings where structured PoE-level cross-border surveillance forums are established and institutionalised to implement cross-border activities.

We see a few key principles/considerations that may guide the sustainable and effective achievement of the vision above.

Local agency, ownership and funding

Stakeholders at both national and subnational (state, local government, etc) levels must drive the implementation of key activities around maintaining these coordination mechanisms. Three concepts are important here—agency, ownership and local funding. Not only is it necessary that public health officials at subnational and national levels own and drive critical intervention (ownership), but they must also believe their action can bring about the desired outcome and is fully backed by the requisite state authority. Agency and ownership are impossible without dedicated local funding through the statutory budgeting processes. As long as funding for key intervention rests with development partners, agency will be diluted, and ownership will be suboptimal. One of the approaches to ensuring dedicated funding through traditional government funding cycles is sustained advocacy to secure and maintain political will.9

Purchase and maintain political will

It will be near-impossible to achieve bridging of bilateral gaps without securing political will across national and subnational levels as well as between countries. Public health leaders will need to continually work at purchasing and maintaining the necessary political will to push through critical policy positions.9

Leverage the platform provided by regional public health institutes

In the last decade, key regional institutes of health have been set-up to drive health security objectives in Africa. The Africa Centre for Disease Control (CDC) and the ECOWAS RCSDC are two key organisations in that mould. In Central Africa, the Organisation for the Coordination of the Fight Against Endemic Diseases in Central Africa performs a similar regional coordination role. Countries must lean on the ability of these institutes to drive multilateral and bilateral conversations, design, and pursue strategic advocacy and mobilise resources.10

Alignment with the Africa Centre for Disease Control ‘New Public Health Order’ philosophy

The African CDC’s New Public Health Order calls for increased local agency and a more active role for regional coordinating public health institutes. The principles and considerations outlined above will ensure drive to strengthen cross-border surveillance meets both key philosophical positions.11

A road map for the medium and long-term

What potential does this mechanism hold for similar interventions for health security in the region? Here are a few exploratory ideas.

Digitisation of district-level cross border information sharing

A key strategy for achieving the objective of national-level monitoring of the surveillance information sharing at the subnational level is the digitising of the process. This will ensure that there is a birds-eye, real-time bilaterally shared view of outbreak information being shared across borders. The extension of this digitisation to other countries in the region will go a long way to making information sharing more seamless. An example of a digital event-based information-sharing platform with the potential of regional adoption across West and Central Africa is ‘The Surveillance Outbreak Response Management and Analysis System (SORMAS)’ already in use in multiple West African countries.12

Joint capacity building initiatives, advocacy and experience sharing

Joint capacity building (including joint simulation exercises) will help surface gaps in capacity, encourage experience sharing and break down language, cultural and context silos. A deliberate attempt to set up an experience-sharing visit may also help in bridging context and expertise gaps between member states. Also, the holding of joint after-action reviews in the aftermath of outbreaks will offer an opportunity to share experiences.

Operationalisation of a district-level joint investigation and response framework

A point that emerged from discussions at the multi-lateral workshop to discuss surveillance and information sharing was the need to establish a similar framework for sharing resources and expertise in joint investigations and response during an outbreak. Such a framework will ensure that border communities can rely on the expertise and resources of neighboring communities. Sample collection and testing across borders, isolation and/or quarantine of ill and suspected persons, etc are public health interventions for which cross-border action will remain highly sensitive. Establishing a bilateral agreement for how to quickly proceed during fast-moving outbreak situations will ensure public health officers at the district level can get ahead of diseases crossing borders and contain highly volatile situations.

Novel use-cases for multi-lateral coordination mechanisms

A few novel use cases to which this approach may be extended exist. An important and urgent example is the establishment of a regional common picture for biosecurity with countries with which Nigeria shares contiguous borders. To do this, there will be a need to expand the scope for incident reporting to include key Biosecurity priorities (across the chemical, biological and radio-nuclear spectrum) and optimise the current coordination mechanism to include specific objectives like linking civilian (public health institutes, laboratory networks, etc) to military and intelligence agencies.

Data availability statement

Data sharing not applicable as no datasets generated and/or analysed for this study.

Ethics statements

Patient consent for publication

Ethics approval

Not applicable.



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West avoids seriously confronting Iran as IAEA meet begins



VIENNA:

A quarterly meeting of the UN nuclear watchdog’s main policy-making body began on Monday with Western powers again choosing not to seriously confront Iran over its failure to cooperate with the agency on a range of issues, diplomats said.

It is more than a year since the International Atomic Energy Agency’s 35-nation Board of Governors passed a resolution ordering Iran to cooperate with a years-long IAEA investigation into uranium particles found at undeclared sites, saying it was “essential and urgent” for Iran to explain the traces.

Since then, the number of undeclared sites being investigated has shrunk to two from three but the list of problems between the IAEA and Iran has only grown. Iran failed to fully honour an agreement to re-install IAEA cameras at some sites and in September barred some of the agency’s most valued inspectors.

“I … deeply regret that Iran has yet to reverse its decision to withdraw the designations for several experienced Agency inspectors,” director general Rafael Grossi told the Board meeting.

“Only through constructive and meaningful engagement can all of these concerns be addressed and once again I call upon Iran to cooperate fully and unambiguously with the Agency.”

With Israel’s military offensive in Gaza continuing in response to Hamas’s Oct. 7 attacks, heightening tensions across the Middle East, the United States did not want to risk further diplomatic escalation with Iran by pushing for a resolution against it at the IAEA, diplomats said.

Read also: Iran undoes slowdown in enrichment of uranium to near weapons-grade –IAEA

“If you did do an (IAEA Board) resolution right now … it’s too dangerous to do anything that could be construed as a wrong signal that could trigger a miscalculation,” a Western diplomat said, citing various factors.

“The region is in this heightened state, you don’t have a ceasefire or resolution of any sort in Gaza, we don’t have the prospects of any kind of nuclear solution, and … the US is going into presidential elections,” they said.

Diplomats had said before the Board meeting that the three European powers that proposed the last resolution jointly with the United States and generally act in coordination with Washington – Britain, France, and Germany, known as the ‘E3’ – were pushing for a resolution and had drafted a text.

Washington, however, has opposed seeking a resolution against Iran for months, at least in part because of the impending US presidential election in November, diplomats have said, and again it was the most reluctant of the four powers.

The United States and E3 have been vocal in criticising Iran on these and other issues, such as its growing stockpile of enriched uranium that would be enough, if enriched further, to fuel several nuclear bombs. Iran says it has no such intention.



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DITA Howitzers for Ukraine – What Makes This Weapon Special?


Ukraine badly needs strong artillery. Russia has a huge advantage in both the number of troops and weapons, so Ukraine must be ahead in terms of technology and the quality of its weapons. That is why the Netherlands is buying nine outstanding DITA self-propelled howitzers for Ukraine. This artillery system has some amazing capabilities.

DITA 155mm howitzer in 2021.

DITA 155mm howitzer in 2021. Image credit: Michał Derela via Wikimedia (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The DITA is a highly advanced Czech-made self-propelled 155 mm howitzer, based on the earlier DANA. The DANA is a Czechoslovak self-propelled eight-wheel howitzer, in service since 1981. Mobility and speed have always been the main advantages of the DANA, which Ukraine also enjoys. But the DANA is a 152.4 mm howitzer, which is the old Eastern Bloc and Russian standard. Meanwhile, the DITA is a modern interpretation of this weapon, which not only has a lot of impressive technology, but also fires 155 mm rounds.

Why is the calibre important? It is already difficult for the West to supply Ukraine with artillery shells. However, finding 155 mm shells is a bit easier because it is the NATO standard. Such ammunition is produced in Western countries, and although it is also in short supply, it will be easier to produce larger quantities of such shells in the future than to find old Soviet 152.4 mm ammunition.

The DITA is an artillery system of impressive capabilities, made for speed. The location of the opposing artillery can be determined by the flight trajectory of the projectiles – there are counter-battery radars for this purpose. Sometimes it’s best to arrive at the firing site, fire a few shots, and leave before the enemy can fire back – this tactic is called shoot-and-scoot.

The DITA is based on a Tatra 8×8 chassis with a 300 kW engine. On the road, this howitzer moves at 80-90 km/h without problems. It is good off-road as well. After arriving at the intended firing location, DITA prepares for shooting in less than 60 seconds. The hydraulic support legs are lowered, the howitzer barrel is automatically raised and directed towards the target, and the automatic loader begins to operate. The DITA can fire 6 shots per minute. Then the howitzer prepares to move in less than 60.

Best of all, the crew sits safely in an armoured, air-conditioned cab. The crew of DITA consists of only 2-3 people who work far from the ammunition compartment.

The Netherlands is buying 9 Czech DITA howitzers for Ukraine. Just that they may take some time to arrive, because it is a completely new weapon and who knows how quickly these systems can be produced. In any case, Ukraine will need good artillery for a long time and DITA is a good tool to have.

The Netherlands buys a lot of weapons for Ukraine. The Commander of the Dutch Armed Forces, General Onno Eichelsheim himself visited the Czech Republic and inspected not only the DITA howitzers, but also the VERA-NG radar system. He emphasized that military support for Ukraine is still the highest priority of the Netherlands.

Previously, the Netherlands ordered 100 MR-2 anti-aircraft guns from Czech manufacturers and together with the USA and Denmark bought 100 modernized T-72 tanks. The Netherlands thus became one of the main customers of the Czech arms industry. But, of course, with the goal of transferring everything to Ukraine.

General Onno Eichelsheim also echoed what most European leaders are now saying – Europe needs to ramp up its own arms production not only for Ukraine, but also for its own security.

Written by Povilas M.

Sources: The Netherlands Ministry of Defence, Wikipedia





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Redefining global health and shifting the balance: the ARC-H principle


Summary box

  • The colonial origins which led to the development of global health as a terminology are long-established.

  • While definitions of global health have evolved to assume a more equitable position, the high to low-income operational direction remains.

  • The ARC-H principle (Access-limited, Resource-limited, Context-limited Healthcare) redefines global health a posteriori according to the practical meaning it has taken on.

  • By reframing the definition using the ARC-H principle, global health expertise can more organically and equitably be allocated.

Introduction

On one hand, ‘global health’ is a straightforward notion of health around the world. On the other, it is a complex concept subject to increasing scrutiny, particularly in light of the evolving discourse on decolonisation.1 Although the definition proposed by Koplan et al (ie, ‘an area for study, research, and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in health for all people worldwide…’) is widely referenced, the term ‘global health’ is subject to a broad range of interpretations.2 This article unpacks the concept’s origins and proposes the ‘ARC-H’ principle as a pragmatic step to rebalance the narrative, not least in pursuit of epistemic justice within global health.3

Origins and interpretations

A recent survey of emergency care practitioners in the UK highlighted the spectrum of interpretations of ‘global health’.4 For instance, a few participants considered that the term applied to international projects undertaken in highly resourced settings. Meanwhile, the label of ‘global health’ is commonly used in relation to:

  • ‘Humanitarian’ response following disasters (including sudden onset, man-made and conflict).

  • The delivery of care in resource-constrained settings.

  • The provision of healthcare to internally displaced populations, refugees, asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants.

  • Efforts to fortify fragile healthcare systems in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs).

These applications tend to reinforce a high-income-centric narrative that global health takes place ‘elsewhere’ and involves engagement with ‘others’. This infers that expertise flows from settings with higher resources towards those who have less.

In part, this reflects that ‘global health’ originated in Western, high-income parlance. Although it aims to be inclusive as a terminology, it has deep-seated roots in colonialism. When the field of tropical medicine arose in the 19th century, it was unashamedly focused on protecting the health of the colonisers.5 Over time, the discipline began to take greater account of the key sociopolitical determinants of health outcomes and incorporated subjects beyond infectious diseases. With these insights, the more inclusive term of ‘international health’ emerged.6 As the 20th century came to a close, the cross-border implications of healthcare policy and practice became more apparent, and the global south increasingly expressed concern that ‘international’ practice was being used to refer to ‘them’ and not everyone. In this context, ‘global health’ emerged as a term that was intended to be less directional and more universal.7

The legacy of meaning

Despite shifts in terminology, the legacy of this history is that the global health agenda continues to be defined, for the most part, by high-income countries. Power and decision-making are often concentrated in resource-rich institutions at the expense of LMIC partners, often with little or no acknowledgement of their voices and expertise.8 9 Although the concept of global health has evolved to centre around transnational healthcare and universal health equity, it retains an undertone of directionality (ie, ‘doing’ global health involves practitioners from more advanced economies engaging in ‘underdeveloped’ contexts).10 This is despite the fact that mature healthcare systems also face significant and ongoing challenges in equity of access and outcomes (the USA, for instance).11 The majority of published and cited ‘experts’ in global health reside or work in the global north (a geographically dubious term, as is the ‘global south’), and are disproportionately responsible for global health work that is ‘abroad’ and unrelated to domestic healthcare inequity.12

Refresh and re-engagement: the ARC-H principle

Regardless of the definitional complexity of ‘global health’, the term is firmly embedded both theoretically and operationally. Until a concise alternative is identified, it will remain in use. Instead of replacing it, we suggest that greater clarity and precision are required when referring to global health activities and programmes. Rather than navigating a priori definitions in the manner of Koplan et al, or exploring its challenges like Taylor, we look at what it has come to mean pragmatically, a posteriori, and qualify its meaning in order to apply it more inclusively.2 13

ARC-H stands for Access-limited, Resource-limited and/or Context-limited Healthcare. When used as an adjunct to the term global health, ARC-H identifies more clearly the environments, populations and practitioners that are being referenced. The term also reinforces that access, resource and context limitations all contribute to health inequity, resulting in unmet healthcare needs and suboptimal health outcomes.

Access

Access-limited healthcare refers to situations where a well-resourced health system exists but access is not equitable or universal. This challenge manifests especially in middle-income and high-income countries, often as a result of geographical and/or financial barriers to care. Access limitations may also become apparent following sudden-onset disasters (the 2023 earthquake in Turkiye, for example).14 Critics of the focus on ‘access’ will question whether this definition extends to wilderness adventure or remote military medicine. While there is crossover, the difference is that this type of access limitation is often constructed, and the health risks can be offset through resource provision.

Resource

Resource-limited healthcare refers to situations where there is a mismatch between demands for care and the supply of human and other resources (infrastructure and equipment, for example). This term is frequently used in the context of global health to describe the challenges faced by LMIC healthcare systems.

Context

Context-limited healthcare refers to situations where healthcare access is compromised by specific sociopolitical circumstances. Asylum-seeking, internally displaced, refugee and undocumented migrant populations, who often endure barriers to care for unique economic, linguistic and cultural reasons, fall into this category.15 To capture this group purely under the banner of ‘access limitation’ dilutes the specific challenges they face, including in relation to the broader social determinants of health.

The ARC-H principle explicitly labels populations and environments typically associated with global health. As a deliberate by-product, it also serves to re-emphasise the expertise of those with lived (and ongoing) experience of access-limited, resource-limited and context-limited practice, who should rightly be identified as global health practitioners. These individuals have skills, knowledge and attributes that should be highly regarded, irrespective of any affiliation with a ‘global health programme’ produced, exported or influenced by a high-income country.

The natural consequence of this definition is that ownership of the specialty of global health will more logically lie with ARC-H populations. A practical application of this approach is that any programme grant, educational event or conference session labelled ‘global health’ will hopefully resonate with a broader spectrum of participants, amplifying the voices of those with lived experience of access, resource and context limitations.

Conclusion

The ARC-H principle, while neither trail-blazing nor revolutionary, seeks to offload colonial vestiges present within the field and terminology of ‘global health’. It offers a more nuanced perspective on the scope of global health practice and recognises where true global health expertise lies. Its apparent simplicity should not undermine its significance, given the pervasive influence of language among the healthcare community.16

In proposing this revised terminology, we acknowledge our bias and privilege as practitioners currently based in high-income countries. This too warrants critique. Regardless, it is hoped that this perspective creates a constructive dialogue about the potential applicability of ARC-H within the global health lexicon. Its application can assist high-income country practitioners to explain the nature of their work more clearly, while simultaneously redressing residual power imbalances. For colleagues in LMICs, use of the ARC-H terminology will hopefully emphasise their inherent expertise, reinforcing that ‘global health’ is something they actively practice, and not the exclusive domain of those outside looking in.

Data availability statement

No data are available.

Ethics statements

Patient consent for publication

Ethics approval

No ethics approval needed.



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Everything we know about the last big fat Ambani wedding


After a year-long engagement, Indian billionaire businessman Mukesh Dhirubhai Ambani’s son Anant Ambani is set to tie the knot with Radhika Merchant, daughter of industrialist Viren Merchant, as reported by Indian media outlets.

Scheduled for July 12 in Mumbai, the prelude to the impending wedding unfolds with a three-day celebration in Jamnagar from March 1 to 3. Intensifying the hype, the guest list is accompanied by a meticulously curated nine-page event dossier and wardrobe guide making rounds on the internet. This comprehensive package, inclusive of a detailed visual mood board, has been distributed to invitees and offers a preview of the elaborate celebration awaiting guests in Jamnagar.

Poised to be a glamourous affair, various international dignitaries including Bill Gates, Mark Zuckerberg and Morgan Stanley’s Ted Pick have been invited to the occasion. From a high-profile guest list to chartered flights and themed nights, here’s everything we know about the last big fat Ambani wedding.

Chartered flights for a star-studded roster

International dignitaries, Bollywood celebrities, and other VIPs are set to arrive in style in the Ambani family-arranged chartered flights and will be transported to the enchanting town of Jamnagar, a town in north Gujarat. The gesture underscores the grandeur and opulence associated with the upcoming nuptials in signature Ambani fashion.

According to News 18, many more VIPs aside from Zuckerberg, Pick and Gates are expected to be gracing the celebrations in Jamnagar. Some names generating buzz right now include Disney CEO Bob Iger, BlackRock CEO Larry Fink, Adnoc CEO Sultan Ahmed Al Jaber and EL Rothschild chair Lynn Forester de Rothschild.

Travel guidelines specify that guests should carry no more than one hand luggage and one piece of hold luggage whereas for couples, three suitcases in total is the sweet spot.

Themed nights and dress codes

The pre-wedding festivities come with a meticulously detailed event guide, outlining specific instructions for the guests. March 1 marks the commencement of a three-day extravaganza, boasting a carefully curated theme for each day. Kicking off the festivities is ‘An Evening in Everland’ on Day 1, promising a classic rendition of an ‘elegant cocktail’ party.

Day 2 will be ‘A Walk on the Wildside,’ possibly designating a whimsical ‘jungle fever’ dress code. This outdoor event, set amidst the Ambanis’ animal rescue center in Jamnagar, will see guests donning comfortable safari attire. By nightfall, the day is set to progress into ‘Mela Rouge,’ a vibrant celebration of culture where attendees will showcase their favourite South Asian attires.

Day 3 will witness a double delight with ‘Tusker Trails,’ an outdoor affair immersing guests in the natural beauty of Jamnagar, followed by the grand finale, ‘Hashtakshar,’ where guests don ‘heritage Indianwear’ for a memorable conclusion to the festivities.

Personalised services and comfort first

Ensuring a luxurious and stress-free experience for the guests, the Ambani family will provide their distinguished attendees with laundry services, saree drapers and other requested assistance. Despite the detailed dress code, the guidebook for guests underlines the family’s emphasis on comfort who “would like” everyone in attendance to “enjoy each moment to the fullest and make beautiful memories that last a lifetime.”

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How Can Proxies Unblock Craigslist and Enable Efficient Data Collection


Explore the effective use of proxies for Craigslist in our comprehensive guide. Learn how to bypass geo-restrictions, enhance data collection, choose the right proxies, and follow best practices to maximize efficiency while adhering to legal and ethical standards. Perfect for researchers and businesses alike.

In the dynamic world of online marketplaces, Craigslist stands out as a trove of information, offering insights into countless markets and consumer behaviors. However, accessing this wealth of data can be challenging due to geo-restrictions and other barriers. This is where proxies come in, serving as a vital tool for unblocking Craigslist and enabling efficient data collection. In this guest post, we’ll explore how proxies can be utilized to overcome these obstacles, unlocking the full potential of Craigslist for businesses, researchers, and data analysts.

What Are Craigslist’s Limitations?

Craigslist, one of the largest classified ad websites, serves as a valuable resource for a variety of needs, ranging from buying and selling goods to job postings and real estate listings. However, users and data collectors often face several limitations when navigating and utilizing Craigslist, which can hinder their ability to fully leverage the platform. Understanding these limitations is crucial for anyone looking to use Craigslist for extensive data collection or market research. Here are the key constraints to consider.

Geo-Restrictions and Regionalization

Craigslist is heavily regionalized, with separate sections for different cities and regions around the world. This structure is designed to facilitate local transactions and relevance. However, it poses a challenge for users trying to access information from regions outside their own. For instance, a user in New York may find it difficult to access or interact with listings in San Francisco or London without appearing to be in those locations.

Rate Limiting and Anti-Scraping Measures

To maintain website integrity and protect its data, Craigslist employs various anti-scraping measures. These include rate limiting, which restricts the number of requests that can be made to the site from a single IP address within a certain timeframe. Exceeding these limits can lead to an IP address being temporarily or permanently banned, making data collection efforts more challenging.

IP Blocking

Craigslist actively monitors for unusual activity, which may include repeated access from the same IP address or patterns that resemble automated scraping. In response, Craigslist can block these IP addresses to protect its data and user experience. This poses a significant hurdle for businesses or individuals who rely on large-scale data collection for analysis and decision-making.

Lack of an Official API for Data Access

Unlike some other major online platforms, Craigslist does not provide an official API for accessing its data. This means that any form of data collection must be done through navigating the website directly, which is not optimized for large-scale data scraping or analysis.

Dynamic Content and Website Structure

Craigslist’s website structure and the dynamic nature of its content can pose challenges for scraping. Listings are constantly being added, removed, or updated, and the website’s layout may change, making it difficult to consistently extract data over time.

Why Proxies Are Needed in Overcoming Restrictions?

A proxy server acts as an intermediary between your internet connection and the website you’re accessing. When you use a proxy, your internet traffic is routed through this intermediary server. This means the website you’re accessing sees the IP address of the proxy server instead of your own.

Bypassing Geo-Restrictions

One of the primary functions of a proxy in the context of Craigslist is to bypass geo-restrictions. Since Craigslist’s content is region-specific, accessing information from different regions can be challenging. By using a proxy server located in the region whose data you want to access, you can view and interact with local listings as if you were physically present in that area. This is particularly useful for businesses or individuals who need to gather data from multiple regions.

Avoiding Rate Limits and IP Blocks

Craigslist imposes rate limits to prevent excessive use of its platform, particularly by automated scraping tools. If these limits are exceeded, Craigslist may block the offending IP address. By using proxies, you can rotate between different IP addresses, thereby distributing your requests across multiple servers. This approach significantly reduces the likelihood of hitting rate limits or having your IP address blocked, as it appears to Craigslist that the requests are coming from different users.

Maintaining Anonymity and Reducing Detection Risks

Using proxies also helps maintain a level of anonymity when accessing Craigslist. It masks your actual IP address, making it more difficult for the platform to identify and track your activities. This is particularly important for users who are conducting market research or data analysis and need to access Craigslist repeatedly without being detected as a potential scraper.

How Can Live Proxies’ Craigslist Solutions Facilitate Effective Market Research?

Navigating Craigslist for comprehensive market research can be challenging due to its regionalization and anti-scraping measures. This is where specialized Craigslist proxies from Live Proxies can play a crucial role. Here’s how to leverage these tools:

  • Accessing Regional Listings: Use Craigslist proxies to bypass geo-restrictions and access listings from diverse locations, crucial for comprehensive market research.
  • Maintaining Anonymity in Data Collection: These proxies mask your IP address, ensuring anonymity and reducing the risk of detection and blocking by Craigslist.
  • Efficient Data Scraping: With Live Proxies’ rotating IP addresses, you can conduct efficient and uninterrupted data scraping, gathering relevant and up-to-date information.
  • Avoiding IP Bans and Rate Limiting: Proxies from Live Proxies help distribute your requests, minimizing the risk of hitting rate limits or IP bans.

Live Proxies offers a range of proxy services, including specialized solutions for Craigslist, ensuring enhanced data collection, security, and efficiency for your online activities.

How to Enhance Data Collection Capabilities?

The utilization of proxies not only helps in overcoming Craigslist’s restrictions but also significantly enhances data collection capabilities. By strategically using proxies, researchers, marketers, and data analysts can gather comprehensive and varied information from Craigslist more efficiently. Here are several ways in which proxies enhance data collection capabilities.

Access to Diverse Geographical Data

  • Local Insights from Global Locations: With proxies, you can access Craigslist listings from different cities and countries, enabling you to gather local insights from a global perspective. This is particularly valuable for businesses looking to enter new markets or for researchers conducting comparative studies across different regions.
  • Comprehensive Market Analysis: By accessing data from multiple regions, you can perform a more comprehensive market analysis. This might include comparing prices, and demand for certain products or services, and identifying regional trends.

Rate Limit Management

  • Avoiding Blocking and Bans: Distributing your requests across multiple proxies reduces the risk of hitting Craigslist’s rate limits, which can lead to IP blocking. This allows for continuous data collection without interruptions.
  • Efficient Data Scraping: Proxies enable more efficient scraping processes by allowing a higher volume of requests in a shorter time frame, speeding up the data collection process.

Anonymity and Reduced Detection Risk

  • Maintaining User Privacy: Proxies mask your real IP address, providing anonymity while accessing Craigslist. This is crucial for users who need to conduct discreet market research or data analysis.
  • Lower Risk of Detection and Blocking: Using different proxies makes it harder for Craigslist to detect and block your scraping activities, ensuring a more sustainable data collection process.

Scalability in Data Collection

  • Handling Large-Scale Projects: Proxies allow you to scale up your data collection efforts. Whether you’re scraping large amounts of data or need data from multiple locations, proxies provide the necessary infrastructure to handle these demands.
  • Flexibility and Adaptability: The ability to quickly change proxy locations and IP addresses provides the flexibility to adapt your data collection strategy as needed, based on the data or insights required.

Enhanced Data Quality and Accuracy

  • Real-Time Data Access: Proxies enable access to the most current listings on Craigslist, allowing for real-time data collection. This is crucial for analyses where up-to-date information is vital, such as pricing trends or rental market studies.
  • Reduced Risk of Skewed Data: By avoiding blocks and rate limits, you ensure a more consistent and uninterrupted data collection process, reducing the risk of skewed or incomplete datasets.

How to Select the Right Proxies for Craigslist?

When selecting proxies for Craigslist, residential proxies are generally the preferred choice. They mimic real user IP addresses, significantly reducing the risk of detection, and making them more suitable for Craigslist. Datacenter proxies, while faster and more affordable, are more easily detectable due to their non-residential nature and may lead to quicker blocks.

Geographic Coverage and IP Pool

It’s important to choose a proxy service that offers a wide range of geographical locations and a large, diverse IP pool. This diversity is essential for accessing various regions on Craigslist and avoiding blocks, as it allows for a more natural browsing pattern that is less likely to be flagged.

Reliability and Speed

The reliability and speed of the proxy service are also critical factors. Opt for services that provide high uptime and fast proxies to ensure efficient and uninterrupted data collection. This is particularly important when scraping large amounts of data or accessing Craigslist from multiple regions simultaneously.

Proxy Management Features

Look for proxy services that offer features like automatic IP rotation and user-friendly management tools. These features are invaluable for managing multiple proxies smoothly and reducing the likelihood of detection by Craigslist’s anti-scraping measures.

Anonymity and Security

Choosing high anonymity proxies, which offer secure authentication and encryption, is essential. These proxies ensure that your activities remain hidden and your data secure, which is particularly important when collecting sensitive information.

Compliance and Ethical Considerations

Finally, ensure that your use of proxies complies with legal standards and Craigslist’s terms of service. Ethical considerations should always be prioritized to avoid misuse of data or violation of user privacy. Responsible use of proxies is key to successful and sustainable data collection efforts on Craigslist.

What Are the Best Practices for Using Proxies with Craigslist?

To maximize the effectiveness of proxies, adhere to these best practices.

Adhering to Rate Limits

While proxies enable you to make more requests to Craigslist, it’s important to respect the platform’s rate limits. Distribute your requests in a manner that mimics natural human browsing patterns. This approach minimizes the risk of triggering anti-scraping mechanisms and helps maintain access over the long term.

Legal and Ethical Compliance

Ensure that your data collection methods are in line with legal standards and Craigslist’s terms of service. Avoid infringing on user privacy or engaging in any form of data misuse. Ethical practices not only protect you legally but also uphold the integrity of your research or business activities.

Utilizing Advanced Scraping Tools

Pair your proxies with sophisticated scraping tools designed to navigate and extract data efficiently from Craigslist. These tools can automate the process while handling the complexities of scraping, such as dealing with dynamic content and CAPTCHAs.

Regularly Updating Proxy Lists

Maintain an up-to-date list of proxies and replace any that become ineffective. Craigslist’s anti-scraping measures can sometimes identify and block proxies, so it’s crucial to have a dynamic list that evolves to maintain uninterrupted access.

Monitoring and Adjusting Strategies

Regularly monitor the performance of your proxies and be prepared to adjust your strategy if you notice a decrease in effectiveness. This could involve changing the rotation frequency, trying different types of proxies, or altering the geographical distribution of your IP addresses.

Balancing Load Across Proxies

To prevent overburdening a single proxy, balance your data collection load across multiple proxies. This not only reduces the likelihood of individual proxies being banned but also ensures a smoother and more efficient data collection process.

Being Cautious with Sensitive Data

When dealing with sensitive or personal data from Craigslist, exercise additional caution. Ensure that all collected data is stored securely and used responsibly, respecting any data protection laws applicable to the nature of the information gathered.

Conclusion

Proxies are an invaluable asset for navigating Craigslist’s restrictions and enhancing data collection efforts. By enabling access to diverse geographical locations and ensuring anonymity and speed, proxies open up new avenues for market research, competitive analysis, and consumer insights. With the right strategy and tools, proxies can transform the way you collect and utilize data from Craigslist, turning challenges into opportunities for growth and insight.





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When to Incorporate Compression A Guide for Audio Enthusiasts

Compression serves as a fundamental tool in various stages of music production, with its application extending to both mixing and mastering processes.

Mixing :

In the mixing stage, compression plays a pivotal role in shaping the individual tracks, ensuring they harmoniously integrate into the overall mix. Its functions span from leveling out track volumes to enhancing specific sonic characteristics.

  1. Leveling and Integration: Compression is employed to even out the levels of individual tracks, fostering a balanced and cohesive sonic landscape. This ensures that no single element dominates the mix, allowing for a more nuanced listening experience.
  2. Enhancing Dynamics: For specific instruments, compression is used to introduce punch and clarity. In the realm of drums, it aids in tightening up the sound, giving it a more defined and impactful presence. Similarly, compression can add sustain to guitars, contributing to the overall sustain and tonal richness.

Tips for Compression in the Mixing Stage:

  1. Gradual Ratio Adjustment: Commence with a high threshold and a low ratio, progressively increasing the ratio until the desired gain reduction is achieved. This approach prevents over-compression, preserving the natural dynamics of the signal.
  2. Experiment with Attack and Release Times: Vary the attack and release times to find the optimal settings for the source material. Faster attack and release times may suit percussive elements like drums, whereas slower settings might be more fitting for vocals, ensuring a more nuanced and natural response.
  3. Makeup Gain Application: Utilize makeup gain to restore the compressed signal’s level to its pre-compression state. This prevents an overall loss of volume in the mix, maintaining the desired balance.
  4. Selective Compression: Exercise discretion in applying compression to individual tracks to avoid an overly cluttered and compressed mix. Instead, prioritize key elements, such as drums and vocals, where compression can enhance punch and clarity without sacrificing the overall balance.
  5. Parallel Compression: Employ parallel compression to strike a balance between punch and dynamic range. This involves routing a track to a bus, applying compression to the bus, and blending the compressed and uncompressed signals to achieve the desired effect. This technique allows for the retention of dynamic nuances while enhancing certain elements in the mix.

Mastering 

The mastering stage is the final frontier in the music production process, where compression takes center stage to bring coherence and refinement to the overall mix. Its role extends beyond mere level adjustment, encompassing the creation of a polished and cohesive final product with a specific loudness level or dynamic range suitable for commercial release.

Mastering Stage: Compression in mastering serves several crucial purposes, aiming to enhance the sonic qualities of the entire mix.

  1. Cohesion and Polishing: Compression is applied to unify the various elements of a mix, ensuring a seamless and polished final product. This process involves carefully balancing the dynamic range to achieve a coherent and harmonious sonic character.
  2. Loudness and Dynamic Range Control: Mastering compression is instrumental in attaining a desired loudness level or dynamic range, a critical consideration for commercial release. By strategically applying compression, mastering engineers can shape the overall intensity of the mix without sacrificing clarity or introducing unwanted artifacts.

Tips for Compression in the Mastering Stage:

  1. Transparent Algorithm Selection: Opt for a compressor with a transparent and natural-sounding algorithm during mastering to avoid imparting coloration to the mix. This ensures that the essence and tonal qualities of the original mix are preserved.
  2. Adjusting Attack and Release Times: Experiment with attack and release times to gauge their impact on the source material. Slower attack and release settings are often suitable for mastering, allowing the initial transients of the sound to persist, contributing to a more natural and nuanced final product.
  3. Parameter Interplay: Pay close attention to the interaction between the compressor’s parameters and the characteristics of the audio signal. Tailor settings such as threshold and ratio based on the specific dynamic range of the track. For instance, a low threshold and high ratio may suit a track with extensive dynamic range, while a high threshold and low ratio may be more fitting for a less dynamic piece.
  4. Multiband Compression: Employ multiband compression to target specific frequency ranges with varying compression settings. This technique proves invaluable for addressing frequency imbalances, taming unruly elements, or adding punch to specific instruments, ensuring a more refined and controlled sound.
  5. Loudness Level Awareness: Maintain awareness of the loudness level throughout the mastering process. Excessive compression can lead to an overly loud and distorted sound, so exercise restraint and apply compression judiciously, always with a clear purpose in mind. Striking the right balance is crucial to achieving a sonically pleasing and commercially viable final master.